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ReflectionsonWater

ContentsTheGreat Stinkof Londonpages 4–5 Daughter of theRiver pages6–7 Bath timeswiththe Romans pages8–9

All human beings need water,not only to drink butalsotokeep clean andhealthy. It canbeastruggle to find and keepasupplyof clean water, especially in cities. These texts areabout thecentral rolewater playsin people’s lives.Introduction

Inthemid-19thcentury,Britainwasgrippedbythefearofcholera,ahighly infectious and deadly disease.WhencholerastruckHamburgin Germany, theBritishgovernmentgrewalarmedthatthis latest outbreak mightspread toBritain. Theydecidedtocreateaspecial committeetodeal withthe expected epidemic. However,the epidemicnever happened because oftheworkof one man: Sir JosephBazalgette. Atthat time, London’ssewageflowedstraight into the River Thames.From hereit leaked into adjacent springs, wells andother sources of drinkingwater.Thiswastherootcause of cholera, awaterborne disease. Contemporary accounts describe London being crowded withmen,women andchildrenstrugglingtosurviveinterrible conditions. In1849, one journalistreportedthat the air had ‘the smell ofagraveyard,andafeeling of nausea comesover anyone unaccustomedtoit.’AbouttheThames, he wrote, ‘heavybubbles nowand then rise up inthewater, whichis coveredwithascumlikean encrusted cobweb.In it float largemasses of noxious,tangledweed and againstthe posts ofthebridges areswollen carcasses of dead animals.’This is an introductionto StephenHalliday’sbook TheGreat Stink of London.During Victorian times, there wereserious problems with water supplyand sanitation in London. Crisis point was reachedinthe summerof1858.The GreatStink of London4

Inthe summer of 1858,thestenchfromtheThameswassobadthat Members ofParliament fled fromtheroomsoverlookingtheriver.The PrimeMinister, Benjamin Disraeli, rushed fromthe debatingchamber, handkerchieftonose. The press calledthecrisis The Great Stink.Disraeli introducedtoParliament a Bill thatgaveBazalgettethe authoritytoconstructthesewers whichhe had designed; itwasrushedthrough within sixteen daysandBazalgette beganwork immediately. By1874Bazalgette had completed his ingenious scheme. He designed a grandsystem of drains and sewerstocarryfoul waterto newpumpingstations and holdingtanks, andnew embankmentstomakethe rivercleaner.In all, he built 1,182 milesofsewers,four pumpingstationsand twomajorwatertreatment works whicharestill operatingtothis day. Bazalgette did muchelse besides. He designed andcreated manyfamous Londonstreetsand severalmagnificent bridgesacrosstheRiver Thames, includingTowerBridge,apresentday London landmark.In fact, Bazalgette created moreof Londonthan anyone else beforeor since. But hisgreatestclaim tofame isthesystem of sewers,whichbanished choleraforever and whichstill servethe capital citytothis day.5

Daughter oftheRiver MyhousewasonthesouthernbankoftheYangtze.Bystandingon theridgeinfrontofmyhouse,IcouldseewheretheYangtzeand Jialongriversmeet.Anassortmentof buildingsonthesurrounding hillslookslikeajumbleofchildren’sbuildingblocks.Quaysdotthe riverbanks,steamshipstieupbetweenthequays.Cablecars, drippingrust,crawlslowlyupanddowntheslopes.Darkclouds blankettheriveratdawn,andatdusk,whenthesun’sraysslant downonthewaterbeforesettlingbehindthehillstothenorth,a fewburstsof sunlightemergefromthedarkmist. Forus,waterwasprecious.Severalhundredfamiliessharedasingle tap.Queuingupwasonlypartoftheproblem,foroncewatercame, itwasusuallyadirtyyellow.Ifwewentdowntotherivertofetch water,ahardsweatyjobatbest,wehadtotreatitwithbleachto makeitfitfordrinkingorcooking,anditleftametallictaste. Exceptfortimeswhentherunningwaterwasturnedoff,wefetched waterfromtheriveronlyforlaundryortomopthefloors. Anyonewhohasneversufferedtheheatofthisplacecannot possiblyunderstandhowitburnsitswayfromyourheartandclogs upeveryporeonyourbody,tolietherebakingyourskin.Normally thereisnowind,butwhenthereis,it’slikeaddingcoaltoafire. Thatwasinthesummer.Thenwhen theYangtzebegantorisethe waterflowedfromthehigherreachesandhundredsofmetresof riverbankwouldbeswallowedupovernightwhenthefloodseason arrived.6This is an extractfrom theautobiography of Hong Ying, whereshe writes abouther lifeasachild in China during the1960s. She lived with herfamily on thebanks of theRiver Yangtze.

Once theweathercooled off,theinconvenienceof bathing increased. Hotwaterwasparticularlyscarce,but sincewecouldn’t affordtogoto thepublicbaths,wesimplytookfewerbaths or no bathsatall.Thewinter coldwasasoppressiveas thesummerheat. Ourhousesweren’theated andheating materialswere virtuallynon- existent.Sometimeswesimplycocoonedourselves in quilts and lay in bed.Atnightwebundledupinasmany clothesaswecouldwear andclimbed into bed, shiveringuntil morningwithfreezinghands andfeet.Idon’tthinktherewasawinter inmychildhoodwhenmy handsweren’tcovered withchilblains thatmademyfingerslooklike carrots. Formybrother,theriverwasasourceoffood.Waterfromthe snowypeakskepttherivertemperatureicy coldmost ofthe year. Nevertheless,wheneverhesawsomethingthatevenlookedlike food,hedivedinafterit:vegetableskins,leafygreens,evenmelon rinds.Oncehe hadwhateveritwasinhisgrasp,he’dswim backto shoreandtakeit home,wheremotherwouldwashit, cutoutthe rottenparts, andthrowitinthewok. But hewasn’talwayslucky. Most ofthetime alltheriverofferedupwasmuddywaterand he’d returnhomeempty-handed.7

Something for everyone In Romantimes, everyone, men and women, richand poor, visited the public bathsthatcould be foundin everytown. Thebaths played a central part in people’sdaily lives. Avisit to thebaths was theRoman equivalentofatrip to thehealth club:it combinedaworkoutinthe gym andbeautytreatments witha chance to meet friendsand doabit of networking.Marbleormurky water? Thebaths ranged fromthe luxurious to the downright squalid.There were bathspanelled withmarble andset with dazzling mosaics, and there were baths where fumes from the furnaceovercamethe bathers andtoenail clippings floated in the murky water. In themoreup- market establishments,suchasthe bathsof Carcalla in Rome,there were dozens of columnsmade from marbleand imported stone. The floorsand walls gleamed with polishedmarble panellinginten different colours,the roof glittered withglassmosaicsand there were alcoves formorethanahundred statues.Over 2,000 years ago, theRomanshad sophisticated systemsfor waterand drainage in place.This was importantas the public baths weremore than justa place to keep clean,asDinahStarkey explains in this article from an educationalmagazine.Bath times with the Romans8Roman Baths

Working upasweat TheRomansbegan bathingby rubbingperfumed oilintotheir skin andthenproceeded to exerciseto work upasweat,for exampleby running, wrestlingorboxing. From the exercise roombathers then moved through into thetepidarium (the warm room)and fromthere into thecaldarium(thehot room)to really sweat outthe dirt.Afterawhile, the bathers returnedtothetepidariumfor theserious business of getting clean by scrapingoff dirt and sweat witha curved metalstrigil.Finally,some bathers could finishoff their session withabreathtakingplungeintothe icecold water of thefrigidarium(the coldroom).Timetorelax Thosewho could afford it might also treat themselves toamassage or a shave. Sometimes there wasalarge poolwhere bathers could relax before goinghome. There were even snacks forsale: evidence hasbeen found that theRomansenjoyed such delicacies as cutlets, sausages,bread, cakes, nutsand hog’s fat!No fun for the neighboursSeneca, the Roman philosopher, shows that it wasn’t so much fun to live near the baths. “I live right over a public baths. Just imagine the noise. I hear the grunting of the body builders. Then a ball player arrives and begins to count shots. Add the people who like to sing in the bathtub. And the people who jump into the pool with a deafening splash. On top of all this, don’t forget the professional hair remover, forever screeching as he advertises his services. He only shuts up when he starts work – and makes someone else do the yelping! Then there are the drink- sellers, the sausage-sellers and the cake-sellers, each with his own special call …”9 Octagonal Frigidarium





This text has been incorporated into this test paper solely for the purposes of the examination in accordance with Section 32(3) of the Copyright, Designs and atents �ct ����� �o copyright clearance for any other use has been obtained or sought� � �ualifications and Curriculum De�elopment �gency 2����CD���2����� �c�nowledgements The �reat Stin� of �ondon, adapted fromThe Great Stink of London: Sir Joseph Bazalgette and the Cleansing of the Victorian Metropolisby Stephen �alliday, published by Sutton ublishing �td (2���)� Daughter of the ri�er, adapted from Daughter of the Rier: �n �uto�iograph�by �ong �ing� published by �loomsbury (����)�STA/12/5604 ISBN: 978-1-4459-5236-9 Acknowledgements The Great Stink of London, adapted from The Great Stink of London: Sir Joseph Bazalgette and the Cleansing of the Victorian Metropolis by Stephen Halliday, published by Sutton Publishing Ltd (2001). Daughter of the River, adapted from Daughter of the River: An Autobiography by Hong Ying, published by Bloomsbury (1999). This text has been incorporated in the test paper solely for the purposes of the examination in accordance with Section 32(3) of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. No copyright clearance for any other use has been obtained or sought. © Crown copyright 2012